Confucius
Confucius(Chinese：孔夫子；pinyin:KǒngFūzǐ；Wade-Giles:K"ung-fu-tzu)，lit.“MasterKung，”September28，551BC-479BC)wasaChinesethinkerandsocialphilosopher，whoseteachingsandphilosophyhavedeeplyinfluencedChinese，Korean，Japanese，andVietnamesethoughtandlife.
Hisphilosophyemphasizedpersonalandgovernmentalmorality，correctnessofsocialrelationships，justiceandsincerity.ThesevaluesgainedprominenceinChinaoverotherdoctrines，suchasLegalism(法家)orTaoism(道家)duringtheHanDynasty(206BC–220AD).Confucius"thoughtshavebeendevelopedintoasystemofphilosophyknownasConfucianism(儒家).ItwasintroducedtoEuropebytheJesuitMatteoRicci，whowasthefirsttoLatinisethenameas“Confucius.”
HisteachingsmaybefoundintheAnalectsofConfucius(論語)，acollectionof“briefaphoristicfragments”，whichwascompiledmanyyearsafterhisdeath.ModernhistoriansdonotbelievethatanyspecificdocumentscanbesaidtohavebeenwrittenbyConfucius，butfornearly2，000yearshewasthoughttobetheeditororauthorofalltheFiveClassicssuchastheClassicofRites(editor)，andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals(春秋)(author).
TheAnalectsofConfucius論語
IntheAnalects,Confuciuspresentshimselfasa“transmitterwhoinventednothing”.Heputthegreatestemphasisontheimportanceofstudy，anditistheChinesecharacterforstudy(orlearning)thatopensthetext.Inthisrespect，heisseenbyChinesepeopleastheGreatestMaster.Farfromtryingtobuildasystematictheoryoflifeandsocietyorestablishaformalismofrites，hewantedhisdisciplestothinkdeeplyforthemselvesandrelentlesslystudytheoutsideworld，mostlythroughtheoldscripturesandbyrelatingthemoralproblemsofthepresenttopastpoliticalevents(liketheAnnals)orpastexpressionsoffeelingsbycommonpeopleandreflectivemembersoftheelite(preservedinthepoemsoftheBookofOdes).
Intimesofdivision,chaos，andendlesswarsbetweenfeudalstates,hewantedtorestoretheMandateofHeaven“天命”thatcouldunifythe“world”(i.e.China)andbestowpeaceandprosperityonthepeople.Becausehisvisionofpersonalandsocialperfectionswasframedasarevivaloftheorderedsocietyofearliertimes。Confuciusisoftenconsideredagreatproponentofconservatism。butacloserlookatwhatheproposesoftenshowsthatheused(andperhapstwisted)pastinstitutionsandritestopushanewpoliticalagendaofhisown:arevivalofaunifiedroyalstate，whoserulerswouldsucceedtopoweronthebasisoftheirmoralmerit，nottheirparentage；thesewouldberulersdevotedtotheirpeople,reachingforpersonalandsocialperfection.Sucharulerwouldspreadhisownvirtuestothepeopleinsteadofimposingproperbehaviorwithlawsandrules.
OneofthedeepestteachingsofConfuciusmayhavebeenthesuperiorityofpersonalexemplificationoverexplicitrulesofbehavior.Becausehismoralteachingsemphasiseself-cultivation，emulationofmoralexemplars，andtheattainmentofskilledjudgmentratherthanknowledgeofrules，Confucius"sethicsmaybeconsideredatypeofvirtueethics.Histeachingsrarelyrelyonreasonedargument，andethicalidealsandmethodsareconveyedmoreindirectly，throughallusions，innuendo，andeventautology.Thisiswhyhisteachingsneedtobeexaminedandputintopropercontextinordertobeunderstood.Agoodexampleisfoundinthisfamousanecdote:
廄焚。子退朝，曰：“傷人乎？”不問馬。
Whenthestableswereburntdown,onreturningfromcourt，Confuciussaid，“Wasanyonehurt?”Hedidnotaskaboutthehorses.
AnalectsX.11，tr.A.Waley
Thepassageconveysthelessonthatbynotaskingaboutthehorses，Confuciusdemonstratedthatasagevalueshumanbeingsoverproperty;readersofthislessonareledtoreflectonwhethertheirresponsewouldfollowConfucius"s，andtopursueethicalself-improvementifitwouldnot.Confucius，anexemplarofhumanexcellence，servesastheultimatemodel，ratherthanadeityorauniversallytruesetofabstractprinciples.Forthesereasons,accordingtomanyEasternandWesterncommentators，Confucius"steachingmaybeconsideredaChineseexampleofhumanism.
PerhapshismostfamousteachingwastheGoldenRulestatedinthenegativeform,oftencalledthesilverrule:
子貢問曰、有一言、而可以終身行之者乎。子曰、其恕乎、己所不欲、勿施於人。
AdeptKungasked:“Isthereanyonewordthatcouldguideapersonthroughoutlife？”
TheMasterreplied:“Howabout"shu":neverimposeonotherswhatyouwouldnotchooseforyourself？”
AnalectsXV.24,tr.DavidHinton
Confucius"steachingswerelaterturnedintoaveryelaboratesetofrulesandpracticesbyhisnumerousdisciplesandfollowerswhoorganisedhisteachingsintotheAnalects.Inthecenturiesafterhisdeath，MenciusandXunZibothcomposedimportantteachingselaboratingindifferentwaysonthefundamentalideasassociatedwithConfucius.Intime，thesewritings，togetherwiththeAnalectsandothercoretextscametoconstitutethephilosophicalcorpusknownintheWestasConfucianism.Aftermorethanathousandyears，thescholarZhuXicreatedaverydifferentinterpretationofConfucianismwhichisnowcalledNeo-Confucianism，todistinguishitfromtheideasexpressedintheAnalects.Neo-ConfucianismheldswayinChinaandVietnamuntilthe1800s.
Confucius
Confucius(Chinese：孔夫子；pinyin:KǒngFūzǐ；Wade-Giles:K"ung-fu-tzu)，lit.“MasterKung，”September28，551BC-479BC)wasaChinesethinkerandsocialphilosopher，whoseteachingsandphilosophyhavedeeplyinfluencedChinese，Korean，Japanese，andVietnamesethoughtandlife.
Hisphilosophyemphasizedpersonalandgovernmentalmorality，correctnessofsocialrelationships，justiceandsincerity.ThesevaluesgainedprominenceinChinaoverotherdoctrines，suchasLegalism(法家)orTaoism(道家)duringtheHanDynasty(206BC–220AD).Confucius"thoughtshavebeendevelopedintoasystemofphilosophyknownasConfucianism(儒家).ItwasintroducedtoEuropebytheJesuitMatteoRicci，whowasthefirsttoLatinisethenameas“Confucius.”
HisteachingsmaybefoundintheAnalectsofConfucius(論語)，acollectionof“briefaphoristicfragments”，whichwascompiledmanyyearsafterhisdeath.ModernhistoriansdonotbelievethatanyspecificdocumentscanbesaidtohavebeenwrittenbyConfucius，butfornearly2，000yearshewasthoughttobetheeditororauthorofalltheFiveClassicssuchastheClassicofRites(editor)，andtheSpringandAutumnAnnals(春秋)(author).
TheAnalectsofConfucius論語
IntheAnalects,Confuciuspresentshimselfasa“transmitterwhoinventednothing”.Heputthegreatestemphasisontheimportanceofstudy，anditistheChinesecharacterforstudy(orlearning)thatopensthetext.Inthisrespect，heisseenbyChinesepeopleastheGreatestMaster.Farfromtryingtobuildasystematictheoryoflifeandsocietyorestablishaformalismofrites，hewantedhisdisciplestothinkdeeplyforthemselvesandrelentlesslystudytheoutsideworld，mostlythroughtheoldscripturesandbyrelatingthemoralproblemsofthepresenttopastpoliticalevents(liketheAnnals)orpastexpressionsoffeelingsbycommonpeopleandreflectivemembersoftheelite(preservedinthepoemsoftheBookofOdes).
Intimesofdivision,chaos，andendlesswarsbetweenfeudalstates,hewantedtorestoretheMandateofHeaven“天命”thatcouldunifythe“world”(i.e.China)andbestowpeaceandprosperityonthepeople.Becausehisvisionofpersonalandsocialperfectionswasframedasarevivaloftheorderedsocietyofearliertimes。Confuciusisoftenconsideredagreatproponentofconservatism。butacloserlookatwhatheproposesoftenshowsthatheused(andperhapstwisted)pastinstitutionsandritestopushanewpoliticalagendaofhisown:arevivalofaunifiedroyalstate，whoserulerswouldsucceedtopoweronthebasisoftheirmoralmerit，nottheirparentage；thesewouldberulersdevotedtotheirpeople,reachingforpersonalandsocialperfection.Sucharulerwouldspreadhisownvirtuestothepeopleinsteadofimposingproperbehaviorwithlawsandrules.
OneofthedeepestteachingsofConfuciusmayhavebeenthesuperiorityofpersonalexemplificationoverexplicitrulesofbehavior.Becausehismoralteachingsemphasiseself-cultivation，emulationofmoralexemplars，andtheattainmentofskilledjudgmentratherthanknowledgeofrules，Confucius"sethicsmaybeconsideredatypeofvirtueethics.Histeachingsrarelyrelyonreasonedargument，andethicalidealsandmethodsareconveyedmoreindirectly，throughallusions，innuendo，andeventautology.Thisiswhyhisteachingsneedtobeexaminedandputintopropercontextinordertobeunderstood.Agoodexampleisfoundinthisfamousanecdote:
廄焚。子退朝，曰：“傷人乎？”不問馬。
Whenthestableswereburntdown,onreturningfromcourt，Confuciussaid，“Wasanyonehurt?”Hedidnotaskaboutthehorses.
AnalectsX.11，tr.A.Waley
Thepassageconveysthelessonthatbynotaskingaboutthehorses，Confuciusdemonstratedthatasagevalueshumanbeingsoverproperty;readersofthislessonareledtoreflectonwhethertheirresponsewouldfollowConfucius"s，andtopursueethicalself-improvementifitwouldnot.Confucius，anexemplarofhumanexcellence，servesastheultimatemodel，ratherthanadeityorauniversallytruesetofabstractprinciples.Forthesereasons,accordingtomanyEasternandWesterncommentators，Confucius"steachingmaybeconsideredaChineseexampleofhumanism.
PerhapshismostfamousteachingwastheGoldenRulestatedinthenegativeform,oftencalledthesilverrule:
子貢問曰、有一言、而可以終身行之者乎。子曰、其恕乎、己所不欲、勿施於人。
AdeptKungasked:“Isthereanyonewordthatcouldguideapersonthroughoutlife？”
TheMasterreplied:“Howabout"shu":neverimposeonotherswhatyouwouldnotchooseforyourself？”
AnalectsXV.24,tr.DavidHinton
Confucius"steachingswerelaterturnedintoaveryelaboratesetofrulesandpracticesbyhisnumerousdisciplesandfollowerswhoorganisedhisteachingsintotheAnalects.Inthecenturiesafterhisdeath，MenciusandXunZibothcomposedimportantteachingselaboratingindifferentwaysonthefundamentalideasassociatedwithConfucius.Intime，thesewritings，togetherwiththeAnalectsandothercoretextscametoconstitutethephilosophicalcorpusknownintheWestasConfucianism.Aftermorethanathousandyears，thescholarZhuXicreatedaverydifferentinterpretationofConfucianismwhichisnowcalledNeo-Confucianism，todistinguishitfromtheideasexpressedintheAnalects.Neo-ConfucianismheldswayinChinaandVietnamuntilthe1800s.